Mongolia, the world’s second-largest landlocked country, covers 1.56 million square kilometers but has a sparse population of just 3 million, 97% of whom are ethnic Mongolians. Interestingly, China is home to a larger Mongolian population, with around 6 million of the 10 million Mongols worldwide residing there, primarily in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, which has over 4 million Mongolians—33% more than Mongolia’s total. This demographic discrepancy prompts inquiries into the historical and political factors that led to the existence of two Mongolian regions.
Expansion of the Mongol Empire: A Historical Overview
The Mongols, originating from tribes on the Mongolian Plateau, trace their roots to early speakers of the Mongolic language, particularly the Donghu tribe, ancestors of modern Mongols. Before the 10th century, they inhabited the Hulunbuir region, benefiting from contact with the Tang Dynasty. After the Tang’s fall, the Mongols, fragmented and under the control of the Liao and Jin Dynasties, faced internal clan conflicts.
In the late 12th century, Temüjin emerged as a unifying leader, becoming Genghis Khan and founding the Khamag Mongol by 1207. This led to aggressive campaigns against the Jin Dynasty and Western Xia. To manage his expanding empire, Genghis Khan adapted a script from the Uyghur, laying the groundwork for the Mongolian writing system.
By 1227, the Khamag Mongol had decimated Western Xia, prompting significant migration to the Yellow River Basin. The Mongols expanded further, defeating the Western Liao and targeting the wealthier Jin and Southern Song Dynasties. Kublai Khan, Genghis Khan’s grandson, established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, conquering the Southern Song by 1279 and unifying China under Mongol rule. This expansion greatly increased Mongol territory and population, shaping their presence across Eurasia.
Unification of Mongolia Under the Qing Dynasty
After the Yuan Dynasty conquered the Southern Song Dynasty, resentment grew among the Han Chinese, leading to uprisings and the establishment of the Ming Dynasty in 1368. The remaining Mongol leadership retreated north under the last Yuan emperor, Toghon Temür, but the Ming could not fully suppress the Mongol tribes, with the Great Wall marking their defensive boundary.
In 1388, internal divisions among the Northern Mongols led to the emergence of two groups: the Tartars in Eastern Mongolia and the Oirats in Western Mongolia. The Ming faced internal crises, hindering their expansion into Mongolian territories. As the Ming declined in the late 16th century, Nurhaci, a leader of the Jianzhou Jurchens, unified his tribes and established the Later Jin Dynasty. The Mongols allied with the Jurchens, forming connections that would later contribute to Inner Mongolia’s development.
In 1636, Nurhaci’s son, Hong Taiji, renamed the dynasty Qing and launched campaigns to consolidate control over the northern Mongolian tribes and China. While some tribes resisted, the Qing subdued southern Mongolian tribes through military force and alliances. By 1688, the Kangxi Emperor had conquered the remaining Eastern Mongol tribes.
The Qing Dynasty adopted a flexible governance system, differentiating between Han and Mongolian territories. Inner Mongolia followed a Han-like prefectural model, while Outer Mongolia was organized through alliances and flags.
Mongolian Independence: A Historical Perspective
After the Qing Dynasty’s defeat in the Opium War of 1840, foreign powers began to exploit its weakened control, including in Mongolia. By the 1840s, Han Chinese migration to Guisui (modern Hohhot) started to change the demographic landscape. Amid the Qing’s decline, Russia expanded its influence in northern China, with Governor-General Nikolay Nikolayevich Muravyov advocating for Russian protection of Mongolia.
From the 1860s to 1890s, Russia took advantage of the Qing’s vulnerabilities through unequal treaties, ceding 1.6 million square kilometers of northern territory and gaining privileges in Mongolia. With the Qing struggling to maintain control over Outer Mongolia, Russia encouraged its autonomy and independence.
Following the Qing’s fall in the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, Outer Mongolia declared independence with Russian support, despite having a population of only 400,000 compared to over a million Mongols in China. The newly formed Republic of China counterattacked Outer Mongolia in 1913, prompting Russia to intervene and establish the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1915, recognizing China’s sovereignty while allowing Mongolian autonomy.
The situation shifted again after the 1917 October Revolution, leading to a temporary Russian withdrawal. In 1921, Outer Mongolian princes and the Mongolian People’s Party, backed by the Soviet Union, formed the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Government. By 1924, Outer Mongolia declared itself the People’s Republic, though China and other nations did not recognize its independence.
China’s efforts to reclaim Outer Mongolia were hampered by internal strife, particularly the Northern Expedition and the establishment of the Nanjing National Government in 1928, which dissolved Inner Mongolia as a distinct region. Japan’s invasion of northeastern China in 1931 further complicated matters, leading to the puppet state of Manchukuo and increasing tensions.
In 1945, the Yalta Agreement affirmed Outer Mongolia’s independence in exchange for Soviet support against Japan. The Republic of China recognized this independence in 1946 after a referendum showed 98.5% support among Outer Mongolians. At independence, Mongolia’s population was around 750,000, while over a million Mongols remained in China, highlighting the ongoing demographic and political divisions between the two regions.
Environmental and Economic Development Disparities
After World War II, Inner Mongolia underwent significant demographic and political changes, particularly with the establishment of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 1947. At that time, the Mongolian population in China surpassed that of Outer Mongolia, and traditional governance through the allied flag system continued among the Mongols.
Despite aspirations for peace, the National Government in China initiated a civil war in 1946, leading to weakened control in northern regions and the establishment of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. This new administrative unit aimed to promote ethnic equality and cater to the region’s Mongolian population, which included about 500,000 ethnic Mongolians out of a total population of approximately 2 million.
Initially, the region covered 538,000 square kilometers and included five leagues. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the capital moved from Ulanhot to Hohhot, and the area expanded to 1.18 million square kilometers. By 2020, approximately 4.2 million Mongols resided in Inner Mongolia, representing about 17% of the total population—more than Mongolia’s entire population of 3 million.
The Mongolian language in Inner Mongolia shares roots with that of Mongolia, though they use different writing systems. Inner Mongolia’s geography features fertile grasslands, such as the Hulunbuir and Xilingol Grasslands, supporting livestock and agriculture. Following the establishment of the new government, the region experienced significant industrialization and healthcare improvements, resulting in a population boom.
By the 1990s, the Mongolian population in China reached approximately 4.8 million, with around 3.93 million in Inner Mongolia. While Mongolia covers 1.56 million square kilometers, much of its land is desert, limiting its population. Economic challenges persisted in Mongolia after the Soviet Union’s collapse, resulting in a GDP per capita of about $4,000 in 2022, with one-third of its population living in harsh conditions in Ulaanbaatar.
In contrast, Inner Mongolia benefited from favorable economic conditions, with a GDP per capita around $14,000 in 2022. Mongolia’s population grew from 2.1 million in the early 1990s to around 3.3 million today, while Inner Mongolia continues to thrive, highlighting stark differences between the two regions.
Source: discovery cctv, X, worldhistory, nmg gov, nmgqq
